Saturday, May 23, 2020

Choosing the Best Words Denotations and Connotations

The difference between the almost-right word and the right word is really a large matter. Its the difference between the lightning-bug and the lightning.(Mark Twain) Careful writers choose words both for what they mean (that is, their dictionary meanings  or denotations) and for what they suggest (their emotional associations or  connotations). For instance, the adjectives slim, scrawny, and svelte  all have related denotative meanings (thin, lets say) but different connotative meanings. And if were trying to pay someone a compliment, we better get the connotation right. Heres another example. The following words and phrases all refer to a young person, but their connotations may be quite different depending, in part, on the context in which they appear: youngster, child, kid, little one, small fry, squirt, brat, urchin, juvenile, minor. Some of these words tend to carry favorable connotations (little one), others unfavorable connotations (brat), and still others fairly neutral connotations (child). But referring to an adult as a child can be insulting, while calling a young person a brat lets our readers know at once how we feel about the rotten kid. Working with the five passages below will help make you more aware of the importance of choosing words carefully for what they imply or suggest as well as for what they mean according to the dictionary. Instructions Each of the five short passages below (in italics) is fairly objective and colorless. Your job is to write two new versions of each passage: first, using words with positive connotations to show the subject in an attractive light; second, using words with negative connotations to describe the same subject in a less favorable way. The guidelines following each passage should help you focus your revisions. A.  Bill cooked dinner for Katie. He prepared some meat and vegetables and a special dessert.(1) Describe the meal that Bill prepared, making it sound appetizing by using words with favorable connotations.(2) Describe the meal again, this time using words with negative connotations to make it sound quite unappealing. B. The person did not weigh very much. The person had brown hair and a small nose. The person wore informal clothing.(1) Identify and describe this particularly attractive person.(2) Identify and describe this particularly unattractive person. C. Douglas was careful with his money. He kept his money in a safe place. He bought only the necessities of life. He never borrowed or lent money.(1) Choose words that show how impressed you are by Douglass sense of thrift.(2) Choose words that make fun of Douglas or pass scorn on him for being such a tightwad.D.  There were many people at the dance. There was loud music. People were drinking. People were dancing. People were holding each other.(1) Through your descriptions, show how this dance was an enjoyable experience.(2)  Through your descriptions, show how this dance was an extremely unpleasant experience.   E. After sundown, the park was empty, dark, and quiet.(1) Describe the  park as a peaceful place.(2) Describe the park as a frightening place. For additional practice in descriptive writing, see  Composing Descriptive Paragraphs and Essays: Writing Guidelines, Topic Ideas, Exercises, and Readings. ​

Tuesday, May 12, 2020

Critically Evaluate Which Criminological Theories Link...

Critically evaluate which criminological theories link with the explanations given by the author for their criminality in the account you have read. Your answer must make reference to specific criminological theories/theorists. Forsyth, S. (2009). Slave Girl. London: John Blake Publishing Ltd. Human Trafficking Human trafficking is a popular modern day crime, which comes under the category of slavery. This includes the transport and the trade of other humans, otherwise known as the victims. This is done as a purpose of work. On average the human trafficking industry can equate to $32 billion a year. (SAAS )Around the world, about 2.5 million people are smuggled in to the trafficking industry at any time, according to records from the U.N. (SAAS) A number of humans are smuggled for trafficking on the terms of diversity, and these are for different reasons. Typically men who are trafficked are released into hard labour work with no benefits for themselves, sometimes including the basic human needs. Young boys who are trafficked are released into typically released into the fishing industry and agriculture; this is then leaving the women and the young girls to be released into forced prostitution. HTSM (2007) Not all humans who are smuggled are released into a form of trafficking; however, all humans who are trafficked are victims of slavery. When a human is the process of being trafficked, they would remove them from all familiar surroundings (unknown), and ensure that they

Wednesday, May 6, 2020

Learning from Mass Media Campaigns for Hiv/Aids Prevention Free Essays

Learning from Mass Media Campaigns for HIV/AIDS Prevention Reviews of mass media campaigns have a special interest for me. They demonstrate what can be done, and as importantly, what cannot be done, by relying on a 1P approach. I have talked about the 5% Solution before, and noted another review of mass media campaigns for changing health behaviors. We will write a custom essay sample on Learning from Mass Media Campaigns for Hiv/Aids Prevention or any similar topic only for you Order Now This post focuses on the findings from a review of recent campaigns to prevent HIV/AIDS. What is interesting in this report are the comparisons it draws to reviews of earlier campaigns in this area as well as the current state of the art and science. The authors used seven principles to guide their analysis: (1) conducting formative research on and about the target audience; (2) using theory as a conceptual foundation; (3) segmenting one’s audience into meaningful subgroups; (4) using a message design approach that is targeted to the audience segment(s); (5) utilizing effective channels widely viewed by and persuasive with the target audience; (6) conducting process evaluation and ensuring high message exposure; and (7) using a sensitive outcome evaluation design that reduces threats to internal validity and allows causal inferences about campaign impact to be made. The question they explore is: to what extent have recent HIV/AIDS campaigns in the literature adhered to these principles? Noar et al (2009) began with a search of peer-reviewed articles appearing from late 1998 through October 2007. Mass media had to be a central or prominent part of a campaign that focused on increasing safer sexual behaviors, reducing risky sexual behaviors, or encouraging HIV testing. At least one outcome measure had to be reported; 38 articles were identified that met these criteria, representing 34 different campaigns. The results on the variables of interest were: Formative research – 16 of the 34 studies (47%) reported any type of research with the audience or pretesting of messages. the most commonly reported activity was research about campaign messages, including pretesting messages or examining message preferences of members of the target audience. Only two studies used formative research to develop or test their outcome measures (a neglected part of the research process in too many studies). Using theory – 44% reported using theory, most often the Health Belief Model, Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior, Social Cognitive Theory, the Transtheoretical Model and Stages of Change and the Information-Motivation-Behavioral Skills Model. Audience segmentation – 94% (all but 2) described an approach to audience segmentation. Message design – very few campaigns used theory to guide development of persuasive messages. The authors note that while behavioral theories can suggest the type of content to include, HOW that content is formed into messages is often approached without explicit reference to relevant theoretical models such as message framing, emotional appeals, sensation-seeking, elaboration likelihood model and the use of narratives. Channels – 21% used a single media channel with television, radio and print media being the channel of choice. The remaining campaigns used other channels (billboards, brochures, Internet, newsletters) and a variety of promotional materials such as baseball cards, postcards, condom packs; a variety of interpersonal strategies including peer education and skill-building workshops and hotlines; and some also included community partners, coalitions and community mobilization in their activities. Process Monitoring – 82% of the campaigns reported audience exposure to messages, with a mean exposure of 77% of the targeted audience (a range of 35% – 100%). There was little reporting of frequency of exposure to campaign messages, and when those data were reported, it was difficult to make comparisons across studies. Outcomes – Pre-Post test designs using independent sampling were employed by a plurality of the campaigns (13 of the 34, or 38%). Eleven studies used only a post-test measure. The authors note that this means that 70% of the campaigns used weak outcome evaluation designs. In 24 of the campaigns (71%) behavioral outcomes were reported, most often either condom use or HIV/STD testing. Among the studies that used stronger designs (the other 30%), only 2 of the 10 found no statistically significant effects. Six studies reported significant changes in outcomes including talked with others about safer sex, continued abstinence, initiated condom use, increased condom use, reduced number of sexual partners, or were tested for HIV. The other two reported changes in behavioral intentions (for example, to use condoms and shifts in stages of change). The authors conclude that, when compared to another review of this literature in 2000, HIV/AIDS mass communication campaigns are increasingly: (1) targeting defined audiences developed through audience segmentation procedures; (2) designing campaign themes around behavior change (rather than solely knowledge or attitude change – though given their selection criteria, this is hardly surprising); (3) using ehavioral theories to inform campaign design; (4) achieving higher message exposure to campaign messages; (5) using stronger quasi-experimental designs with control groups for outcome evaluation (although still far too few studies use these stronger designs); and (6) including measures of behavior change (or behavioral intentions) in outcome assessments. This review highlights how mass communication efforts for HIV/AIDS prevention have shifted from general awar eness and knowledge outcomes to ones more tightly focused on achieving behavioral changes among defined segments of the population. While formative research has become commonplace, there are relatively few studies that use research designs that allow for drawing strong conclusions from their findings. This latter point does not mean that research designs must be randomized controlled studies, but as the authors note, even the addition of control groups or using time-series with control communities help address the question of whether there are alternative explanations for the observed effects (for example, that the respondents are not simply placating researchers with favorable or socially desirable responses to their questions). Social marketing is more than mass communication campaigns, but we often use mass media in conjunction with products and services, providing incentives and reducing costs of engaging in new behaviors, and increasing access and opportunities to perform these behaviors. Learning what works with mass media is important, but as other reviews have pointed out, it is not enough to achieve public health outcomes. Some marketers will note that health communication planners have adopted our practices of segmentation, targeting behavior change and using formative research. However, the importance of using theories that fit the problem of designing persuasive messages is one important takeaway. The other takeaway is the challenge of designing better studies to assess outcomes. Thinking about using comparison populations, or simply delaying intervention among some priority groups while continuing to assess important outcomes, can help us demonstrate that we have more than a very elaborate, and perhaps even effective, placebo. Reference: Noar, S. M. , Palmgreen, P. , Chabot, M. , Dobransky, N. Zimmerman, R. S. (2009). A 10-year systematic review of HIV/AIDS mass communication campaigns: Have we made progress. Journal of Health Communication, 14: 15-42. [free download] Add to del. icio. us †¢ Email this †¢ Save to del. icio. us †¢ Share on Facebook How to cite Learning from Mass Media Campaigns for Hiv/Aids Prevention, Essay examples

Sunday, May 3, 2020

Cognition and Cultural Change in Social Class †MyAssignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the Cognition and Cultural Change in Social Class. Answer: Introduction: Culture of an individual shapes his or her cognition, thinking, perception as well as the personality of the individuals. There are various aspects of culture, like values, beliefs and norms. These values affects the thought process of individuals. Whatever individuals perceive, understand and at times interpret, are largely affected by the individuals cultural values. For an instance, a well educated person who lives in a city will have different thinking and viewpoints than an individual that lives in a remote or underdeveloped area. They will have different opinions about life, one living in a city will work want to make career in his desired area and the one living in any remote an underdeveloped area will have different opinion, he might think of day to day survival. This big difference in their thought process is mostly because of the culture they have grown (Kahan et al., 2011). Cognitive abilities of an individual, thought process, attitude, personality and behavior are determined by the cultural values individuals have adopted. This is the main reason why individuals differ from each others, they have different perceptions. According to women living in conservative societies would not aspire high for their career, rather they will think of marriage and family lives. On the other hand according to it is not necessary that people living in conservative societies have conservative thoughts for example, the Noble Laurate Malala who belonged to a very conservative and remote area but her thinking was not affected by the environment she lived in rather she rose and fought for the right of other women. There are so many examples of individuals whose cultural values have not affected them rather they thought different from the masses, they challenged the norms and did not accept to follow the generally accepted rules or the values that was prevalent in the society . According to Yaghoobi Abdolahimoghadam, (2016) Culture does affect thinking process of individuals but there are other factors as well that have a greater impact on the cognition of human beings. Learning and experience are some of the factors that have greater impact on the cognition of individuals. According to a very famous philosopher Daniel Dennett, human beings are affected by the culture they have embedded in a very myriad way. The beliefs vary in different cultures across the word, and there are profound implications in the thought and behavior of human beings. This pattern of similarity within culture and differences between cultures in human beings are evidence of role of the acquired beliefs, desires and values of culture. Also, there are evidences of the similarity in the beliefs of individuals that occur between the cultures of human beings despite the specific patterns that occur in different cultures (Yaghoobi Abdolahimoghadam, 2016). Many psychologists and cross-cultural anthropologists have argued this fact, they have been focusing on the patterns of similarities and differences that occur between the cultures around the world. The nature and the extent or the roles that are played by cultural factors have been the one of the most discussed topic of psychology, anthropology and sociology. The differences between universalism and relativitism and culture and nature show the enduring interest. Emphasizing on the relations between culture and cognition a distinction between weak and strong cultural cognitions can be made. The fact that the contents of cognition are very much variable between different cultures are often conceded by the weak version of relationship between culture and cognition. The processes that determine these variables across the different cultures are cross culturally not variable (Kahan, 2014). For instance the language around the world differs in its basic features but there are certain similarities, there is universality in the grammars which are generated by universal psychological mechanisms. The evidence for the weak version of cultural cognition are provided by some empirical researches. For instance, the taxonomies for living things in various cultures have certain commonalities. Certain contents of the division are naturally different, there are cross cultural similarity in classifying the living beings in a hierarchical fashion. However there are certain different plants and animals found in different areas are different biogeographically (Riding Rayner, 2013). On the contrary the weak version of cultural cognition, the advocates of the strong version ensures that not just the content of cognition but also the nature of cognitive processes vary across different cultures. Culture hence is seen as radically influencing the fundamental nature cognitive and neutral architecture (Strandell, 2016). According to psychologist Santos, Varnum Grossmann, (2017) human minds are shaped and structured by cultures not just in terms of elements of cognition which are culturally bound but they also they also organize minds fundamentals, neurologically. Many psychologists give the evidences of such influences, which are based on neural organization. According to, people who are brought up in urban establishments respond in a different way to the visual tests than people who are brought in rural areas. He further claims that people of urban areas give response to the stimuli which are angular and structured more readily than the people brought up in rural ar eas (Santos, Varnum Grossmann, 2017). The cognitive anthropologists claim that environmental factors, that are mostly related to culture affect the nature of cognition. DAndrade puts emphasis that the relationship between culture and cognition needs to be conceptualized as they are reciprocal to each other. Culture representations influences the psyche which selects own their own and modifies as per the abilities of human cognitive system (Hutchins, 2014). Evolutionary theory The contemporary theorists of this field have shown interest towards the role of evolutionary theories in the working of human mind. It is argued by the evolutionary psychologists that to understand how mind works it is very important first pay attention to the problems that mind solves. The mind just like the body has evolved so it is necessary that it should be studied with the help of similar methods. The fact that evolutionary psychology gives new examples for the psychological sciences are rejected, it is argued that questions that are related to evolutionary theory are important to the understanding cognition and its relationship with culture. The evolutionary approach connects both the domain specific view and an anti-individualist approach to human cognition (Grossmann, Huynh Ellsworth, 2016). It is argued by evolutionary psychologists that cognitive modules are evolved mechanisms that have different phylogenic histories. It is also been argued that general purpose view of c ognition is not feasible biologically because the adaptive behavior differs largely in different areas. There is a way in which learning is being framed so that organisms are lead towards a narrow envelope which is important in this reference (Cerulo, 2015). From the evolutionary perspective cognition needs to be embedded in the real world. In order to generate adaptive behavior there has to be reciprocal relations between the mind and the environment including the social environment. Initially the modular theory of the mind and evolutionary would not seem enough to make the topic comprehensible, one would be unable to understand the role of culture in cognition. If the thoroughly epigenetic features of cognitive development are accepted then cultural diversity can be looked as natural outcomes of an evolution, domain specific mind embedded in a rich social and cultural environment. As per this perspective, cultural learning, do not completely determine the thought process of individuals. Communal mind creates culture and every mind is genetically structured (Berkenkotter Huckin, 2016). In order to study and understand the cultural diversity it is important to consider the discussions of cognitive anthropologists the exact area for conc eptual module is informational in organisms environment. For an instance the living things module are constructed to provide information regarding the different species that is seen by an individual in an environment. In the similar the module for our theory mind are made to generate explanations of human behavior in context of the desires, beliefs and values (Uzzell, Ponton Ardila, 2013). The cognitive operations in all the individuals remain same, the content though remains same which depends on certain local details. It can be concluded that cultural cognition occurs due to certain cognitive domain specific learning. The learning of human beings is not determined by the culture but also to the basic biological factors that is common to all the human beings and this explains the reason why some of the beliefs and basic judgments are common to all the cultures (Ellen, 2016). For instance it is known by all individuals that stealing, killing and torturing someone is not good, it has been mentioned in all cultures, these are basic judgments made by the human mind and not by any culture and hence it is common to all the religions. Apart from culture the consciousness of human mind in identifying the right and wrong is also to a great extent responsible for the decisions made by human beings. It is more often argued that every individual have their judgments, that does no t need any cultural norms rather it can be said that the cultural norms have been derived from these judgments that any sane human beings have and this is common to all (Rapoport, 2016). The norms set by the minds becomes the basis for human cognition. Apart from that a simple example can be taken that an individual was brought up in an environment of violence and have always believed that violence is the only way to get things done, but someday he experiences something that transforms his life, it could be a person or even incidence. The experience will change the perspective of that person, therefore in this case it can be concluded that human beings apart their culture are also influenced by experiences. It can be said that cognition cannot be restricted to cultural norms there are other factor as well that have a greater role to play in this regard (Leung Morris, 2015). According to the sociocultural perspective, human beings learn from what they think which I basically a function of social and cultural factors that are limited to the environment they have grown. This perspective focuses mostly on the factors that make individuals different rather than on the common factors in the perspective of human beings. There is a significant difference between the children who grow up in a technologically advanced society and the children who are born in hunter- gatherer society (Beebe et al., 2015). Children solve their problems based on their cognition, they are explorers. They keep discovering new things, it is being argued that there are certain cognition in the individuals who live in socially isolated places. Although, higher psychological processes require social contributions for cognitive growth. Cognitions are not characteristics of individuals rather they are functions that transfers among individuals (Fiske Taylor, 2013). There are many factors apart from culture and society that affects human cognition which shapes the perception of individuals. The impacts of culture on individuals with maximum number of exposure are very minimum. Experiences, education and interactions with different people in most of the cases affects the human cognitive abilities, but inborn human judgments that develop with growth and development of human beings and their brain have a larger impact than all these factors. This has been argued by many anthropologist and psychologists and still significant discussions are being carried on this topic, which is putting emphasis on the fact that cultural factors have impact on human cognition but that can be manipulated and transformed later by interaction, knowledge, experience and exposures. Cultural cognition are not long lasting. Even if they helps in shaping the cognition of the individuals there are factors that also affect the cognition of individuals. There are differences in the cultures all around the world but also there are certain similarities among the cultures that far away with each other. It is not only the culture of the individuals but the functions of the brain also have influence on the cognitive abilities of individuals and the psychologists have argued this topic, it is a very controversial topic and the argument is in favor of both the sides. References Beebe, J., Qiaoan, R., Wysocki, T., Endara, M. A. (2015). Corrigendum Corrigendum to: Moral Objectivism in Cross-Cultural Perspective (Journal of Cognition and Culture 15 (2015) 386401, doi: 10.1163/15685373-12342157).Journal of Cognition and Culture,15(5), 543-544. Berkenkotter, C., Huckin, T. N. (2016).Genre knowledge in disciplinary communication: Cognition/culture/power. Routledge. Cerulo, K. A. (2015). Culture and cognition.Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral Sciences: An Interdisciplinary, Searchable, and Linkable Resource. Ellen, R. (2016). The cultural cognition of time: some anthropological perspectives. Fiske, S. T., Taylor, S. E. (2013).Social cognition: From brains to culture. Sage. Grossmann, I., Huynh, A. C., Ellsworth, P. C. (2016). Emotional complexity: Clarifying definitions and cultural correlates.Journal of personality and social psychology,111(6), 895. Hutchins, E. (2014). The cultural ecosystem of human cognition.Philosophical Psychology,27(1), 34-49. Kahan, Dan. "Cultural Cognition Project at Yale Law School." (2014). Kahan, D. M., Jenkins?Smith, H., Braman, D. (2011). Cultural cognition of scientific consensus.Journal of Risk Research,14(2), 147-174. Leung, K., Morris, M. W. (2015). Values, schemas, and norms in the culturebehavior nexus: A situated dynamics framework.Journal of International Business Studies,46(9), 1028-1050. Rapoport, A. (2016).Human aspects of urban form: towards a manenvironment approach to urban form and design. Elsevier. Riding, R., Rayner, S. (2013).Cognitive styles and learning strategies: Understanding style differences in learning and behavior. Routledge. Strandell, J. (2016). Culture, cognition and behavior in the pursuit of self-esteem.Poetics,54, 14-24. Santos, H. C., Varnum, M. E., Grossmann, I. (2017). Class, Cognition and Cultural Change in Social Class. Uzzell, B. P., Ponton, M., Ardila, A. (Eds.). (2013).International handbook of cross-cultural neuropsychology. Psychology Press. YAGHOOBI, A., ABDOLAHIMOGHADAM, M. (2016). Investigating the relationship between moral reasoning and moral behavior in adolescents mediated by social cognition theory.